The True Gladness of Wine
The debate over whether Christians ought to consume alcohol is not only an old one but, on the Web at least, a tired one. Much of the tiredness, though, is due to an excess of passion and a shortage of precision. Quarreling has been abundant and arguing scarce. I hope to contribute a bit here to the argument rather than the quarrel.
One example of arguing rather than quarreling dates back to the spring of 2006. I gather that Bob Bixby posted a case against the use of alcoholic beverages by Christians.1 Bob Hayton responded, in part, with an essay entitled “Wine to Gladden the Heart of Man”: Thoughts on God’s Good Gift of Wine. In the essay, Bob Hayton argues not only that “God gave us wine to bring us joy,” but also that the joy He had in mind is an effect of wine’s alcohol specifically.
Speaking of Judges 9:13, Ecclesiastes 10:19, and Zechariah 10:7, Bob observes:
It should be clear that even the intoxicating nature of wine is being praised, here. Wine lifts the spirit and gladdens the heart long before it actually overtakes you and makes one drunk. Wine can be enjoyed and its effects relished without losing control and becoming drunken.
This theme runs through the eight points that form the main structure of the essay. Following the eight points, a section focuses on counterarguments related to the biblical warnings against wine and the use of weaker brother passages. Though Bob wrote the post some years ago, I became aware of it during a discussion here at SI last year and pledged to write a response sometime. Here it is.
A little perspective
Before I delve into the particulars, a bit of framing. First, I believe that the decision to use (non-medicinal) alcohol judiciously or to abstain from it completely is a matter of conscience. Believers must apply the Scriptures and be fully persuaded in their own minds (Rom. 14:5) and must not despise one another (Rom. 14:3, 10) for arriving at different conclusions.
That said, matters of conscience (or liberty) are not matters we should avoid discussing or examining carefully.2 We owe it to our Lord, ourselves, and one another to have a conscience that is as clearly and truthfully informed as possible.
So it’s in that spirit that I’m going to try to upend the argument in Bob’s essay. I have the highest regard for him and for many of those who share his views on this question.
The eight points
In support of the idea that wine is God’s gift and we should enjoy it (the effect of its alcohol in particular), the essay offers eight points with supporting Scriptures:
- Wine is a gift of the goodness of God (Jer. 31:12-4, Ps. 104:14-15, 1 Tim.4:1-5).
- Wine produces joy—it “gladdens the heart” (Judg. 9:13, Ecc. 10:19 NASB, Zech. 10:7. See also Prov. 31:6-7, Jer. 16:7-8).
- Wine is used in rejoicing before God (Deut. 14:22-26, Isa. 62:8-9, Deut. 12:17-19. See also use of wine in drink offerings: Ex. 29:40, Num. 15:5, 2 Chron. 31:5, Deut. 8:4).
- Abundance of wine is a particular blessing from God (Joel 2:24-26, 3:18; Gen. 27:28; Deut. 7:13).
- Having no wine was a hardship or a judgment of God (Amos 5:11, Deut. 29:2-6. See also Deut. 18:39, Mic. 6:15, Zeph. 1:13).
- The absence of wine results in the absence of joy (Isa. 24:7-11, Jer. 48:33, Is. 16:10).
- Drinking wine is singularly festive, joyful, and celebratory (Ecc. 9:7, Isa. 22:13, Job 1:13, Esther 1, 1 Chron. 12:39ff, Gen 27:25 and several others).
- Wine will be part of the future feasting in Christ’s kingdom (Isa. 25:6-9, Jer. 31:12-14, Matt. 26:29, Luke 22:28-30, Matt. 8:11, Luke 13:29, etc.).
Points of agreement and contention
The crux of this particular debate is really not the eight points themselves but whether they truly support the thesis. Isolated from a particular conclusion, seven of the eight points are solid and well supported by Scripture. (Point six should probably be merged with point five since the passages listed there do not indicate a cause-effect relationship.)
But the argument as a whole hinges on a particular definition of “wine” and a particular view of wine’s relationship to one of its usual ingredients (alcohol). Since the pro-wine position needs to argue that fruit of the vine without alcohol is not a suitable modern-day substitute, it must attribute the blessings of wine to alcohol specifically. The thesis, then, is effectively that alcohol is a blessing God gave us to make us glad. Most advocates of the judicious use of wine maintain that if there is no alcohol, the beverage simply isn’t wine.
This is my main point of contention: Where passages do not clearly indicate the effects of intoxication (whether slight or severe), “wine” cannot be used validly as a synonym for “alcohol.”
The old non-alcoholic wine argument
At this point, I’m sure some have got me pigeon-holed as a proponent of the old “Christian people drank non-alcoholic wine” argument. But this is not where I’m going. I believe God’s people consumed wine with alcohol on a regular basis.
But does it follow that if wine usually contained alcohol, every statement in Scripture extolling wine is also extolling alcohol? A closer look at some of the passages Bob uses in his essay suggests an answer.
But the vine said to them, “Should I cease my new wine,
Which cheers both God and men,
And go to sway over trees?” (NKJV, Judg. 9:13)
Here, the “wine” cheers both God and men. Presumably, it cheers them both in a similar way—but how would God experience the cheer that comes from the early stages of intoxication? Since God is a spirit, the cheer in this passage is evidently not directly related to any ingredient the wine contains—and doesn’t even depend on drinking it. (Arguably, we could take this as a reference to God incarnate physically enjoying wine, but it seems less strained to see the cheer here as referring to the gladness of witnessing an abundant harvest.)
Joy and gladness are taken
From the plentiful field
And from the land of Moab;
I have caused wine to fail from the winepresses;
No one will tread with joyous shouting—
Not joyous shouting! (Jer. 48:33)
Gladness is taken away,
And joy from the plentiful field;
In the vineyards there will be no singing,
Nor will there be shouting;
No treaders will tread out wine in the presses;
I have made their shouting cease. (Isa. 16:10)
Consider this: how much alcohol does the “wine” in these verses contain? Here the term refers to the product of the press at the time it comes from the press—a liquid containing no alcohol at all. This use of “wine” in reference to the not-yet-fermented fruit of the vine is not unique. In Jeremiah 40:10 and 12 “wine” is what is “gathered.” In Amos 9:13, “wine” is what the mountains are dripping with. In Haggai 2:16, “wine” is still in the vat, and in Isaiah 65:8 the substance is “wine” even while still in the cluster!
Though it’s true (as far as I can tell) that wine was nearly always consumed with alcohol in it, the evidence does not support using “wine” as a synonym for “alcohol,” nor may we treat alcohol as an essential attribute. We can’t assume that all references to “wine” say something meaningful about alcohol in particular.
The real gladness
If we accept that “wine” does not refer to alcohol specifically, or even consistently to a beverage containing alcohol, we’re free to look at the wine-and-gladness passages with more openness and to allow the context to carry more weight in understanding what each reference reveals.
What that look reveals is that most of the passages which associate wine with gladness are about the gladness of physical nourishment or refreshment, the gladness of abundant harvest or the gladness of God’s blessing in general (many of these passages associate cheer with food as well in the same context). Most of the passages that associate lack of wine with sorrow are really about famine and loss due to God’s judgment. Few of these passages are actually about wine. Nearly all refer to it in service to some larger point.
The table below classifies all of the primary texts from Bob’s essay, and most of the secondary ones as well. (Some passages could be classified under more than one heading.)
Passages associating wine with the gladness of abundant harvest or God’s blessing in general | Jeremiah 31:12-14, Deuteronomy 14:22-26, Zechariah 10:7, Judges 9:13, Isaiah 25:6-9, Isaiah 62:8-9 |
Passages associating wine with the gladness of nourishment or the pleasure of eating and drinking | Psalm 104:14-15, Ecclesiastes 10:19 |
Passages associating lack of wine with the sorrow of meager harvest or loss of God’s blessing in general (judgment) | Amos 5:11, Deuteronomy 29:2-6, Deuteronomy 28:39, Micah 6:15, Zephaniah 1:13, Isaiah 24:7-11, Jeremiah 48:33, Isaiah 16:10 |
Passages associating wine with gladness vaguely (specific reference to intoxicating property not clear, but possible) | Ecclesiastes 9:7, Isaiah 22:13, Song of Solomon 1:2-3, 4:10 (and others in Song of Solomon) |
Passages not associating wine with gladness (mostly with other items representative of God’s provision and grace) | Exodus 29:40, Numbers 15:5, 2 Chronicles 31:5, Deuteronomy 12:17-19, Joel 2:24-26, Joel 3:18, Genesis 27:28, Deuteronomy 7:13, Matthew 26:29 (and Luke 22:17, 20), 1 Corinthians 11:21 |
Passages simply indicating that wine was consumed along with food, mostly on some special occasion | Job 1:13, Esther 1:7, 1 Chronicles 12:39-40, Genesis 27:25, Luke 7:33-34 |
Passages referring to medicinal use of wine | Proverbs 31:6-7 |
Passages that do not mention wine but would fit under one of the other headings if wine is assumed | 1 Timothy 4:1-5, Luke 13:29, Luke 22:28-30, Matthew 8:11 |
Since the gladness and cheer in these passages do not depend specifically on the presence of alcohol, those who enjoy the fresh juice of the grape (or of the grapefruit, for that matter) cannot be accurately characterized as rejecting the blessing of “wine” or of missing out on the biblical gladness it brings.
Aaron Blumer Bio
Aaron Blumer, SharperIron’s second publisher, is a Michigan native and graduate of Bob Jones University (Greenville, SC) and Central Baptist Theological Seminary (Plymouth, MN). He and his family live in a small town in western Wisconsin, not far from where he pastored Grace Baptist Church for thirteen years. He is employed in customer service for UnitedHealth Group and teaches high school rhetoric (and sometimes logic and government) at Baldwin Christian School.
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[JNoël]The Samurai used to commit suicide by eating a tablespoon of regular old salt, which substance, even in regular recipes, is also also a cause of many health problems. Shall we ban it?
Alcohol is toxic.
[dmicah] Should we abstain from marital intercourse? sex is addictive and its results are so destructive in the social and physical damage done to to others, it seems like ignoring the multitude of passages and counselors to think it wise to engage it at all.I’m not aware of any passages that declare the marital sexual relationship to be dangerous in any way. That’s a weird argument you make, sir.
Emotional arguments based upon those who have abused a God given gift are not valid. I really respect what Aaron is trying to accomplish with focusing on detailed arguments and explanations for personal choices in liberty. Anecdotally it seems as though many people on both sides of this issue come to bright line decisions on the this topic without thinking about it deeply.
My point was not out of emotion, it is one of thoughtful consideration of what the Bible says about the dangers of alcoholic beverages.
Ashamed of Jesus! of that Friend On whom for heaven my hopes depend! It must not be! be this my shame, That I no more revere His name. -Joseph Grigg (1720-1768)
Sexual intercourse within certain boundaries is OK and even a good in scripture.
Alcohol consumption within certain boundaries is OK and even a good in scripture.
Sexual intercourse outside boundaries is sin.
Alcohol consumption outside boundaries is sin.
These are completely paralel statements with equal weight and logic in scripture. But you may saw, “I am commanded to have sexual intercourse with my wife.” Yes, but you’re not commanded to marry. Both are volitional choices that you may or may not make.
The danger in both cases is within, not without. Sin is mostly inside you, not existing outside of you trying to get in. The same is true of the lust for drunkenness.
When the Scripture reverses its approval of marital sexual relations (you know, the old “marriage is honorable in all, and the bed undefiled” thing) and states something akin to “marital sexual relations equate to the scorner of Proverbs of which you should have no part” I will join the bandwagon in calling for abstinence (I may not like it, mind you, but I will obey).
In the meantime, while we’re waiting on these divine changes to holy writ, let’s set aside the silliness and discuss the matter at hand which requires no new revelation.
Lee
[Shaynus] It’s not a weird argument at all. Just because it seems odd to you doesn’t make it weird. Think about it this way.Great, as if I don’t have enough weddings to attend, now I’ll get invitations from all sorts to attend their boozing ceremony where they covenant under God to become one with a bottle till death do them part.
Sexual intercourse within certain boundaries is OK and even a good in scripture.
Alcohol consumption within certain boundaries is OK and even a good in scripture.
Sexual intercourse outside boundaries is sin.
Alcohol consumption outside boundaries is sin.
These are completely paralel statements with equal weight and logic in scripture. But you may saw, “I am commanded to have sexual intercourse with my wife.” Yes, but you’re not commanded to marry. Both are volitional choices that you may or may not make.
The danger in both cases is within, not without. Sin is mostly inside you, not existing outside of you trying to get in. The same is true of the lust for drunkenness.
Lee
[Lee]
In the meantime, while we’re waiting on these divine changes to holy writ, let’s set aside the silliness and discuss the matter at hand which requires no new revelation.
[Lee]Didn’t take long to set aside silliness did it?
Great, as if I don’t have enough weddings to attend, now I’ll get invitations from all sorts to attend their boozing ceremony where they covenant under God to become one with a bottle till death do them part.
emotion says, “It’s bad. Look at the damage it’s caused. Therefore, despite what Scripture says, use experiences to create doctrine.”
a few of God’s gifts
spouse
nature
sexual relations
food
non-marital companionship
alcoholic beverages
each is to be enjoyed within context and biblical parameters.
each can be abused, mistreated, become idols, create addictions, etc. outside of context and biblical parameters. But abuse and misuse comes from humanity and our hearts, not the element of the gift.
[Aaron Blumer]It is important in this discussion to get back to Aaron’s question: Is alcohol the ONLY reason wine is praised and said to bring joy. If alcohol is the reason, then it would follow that the more alcohol % contained in the wine, the better it is. Or, without alcohol, there would be no rejoicing.Even though I feel Christians should abstain, I don’t think we can argue against the fact the “wine” referred to in “maketh the heart glad” was free of alcohol. I don’t know of people noting their happiness after drinking just grape juice.This is not quite what I’m claiming. Nonetheless, look at the Scriptures in the table. The gladness is usually in the context of both food and drink and quite often in the context of abundant harvest in general. There is simply not an example among these verses where the gladness is clearly of the unique sort generated by early-stage intoxication.[Bob] Proposition 1: Scripture connects drunkenness with “making merry”, having “merry hearts” and “shouts of joy”.The reasoning here is not valid.
Scriptures that illustrate this: Judges 16:25, 1 Sam. 25:36, 2 Sam. 13:28, Esther 1:10, Eccl. 2:3, Jeremiah 51:39, Zech. 10:7. Note especially 1 Sam. 25:36: “Nabal’s heart was merry within him, for he was very drunk” (emphasis added)
Proposition 2: Scripture praises wine for its ability to give joy (without any disclaimer that certain levels of enjoyment and heights of happiness are out of bounds).
Scriptures that illustrate this: Judges 9:13, Ps. 104:15, Eccl. 9:7, Eccl. 10:19, (and other references that fit in with the 8 points I originally made, see the list in Aaron’s post).
Conclusion: The nature of wine that makes it able to produce joy (i.e. the intoxicating effects of wine as a substance), is a God-ordained, good thing.
X has quality A
Y is praised for having quality A
Therefore, Y is good only because it’s like X
I’m having trouble seeing how this conclusion can flow from these premises—even if the joy and gladness in the two premises are assumed to be identical in kind (which has not been demonstrated).
About a lot of the other comments… I was pretty sure this thread would not stay all that focused on the topic of the OP. People are passionate about these matters, and for reasons that are not hard to imagine.
But to clarify: I haven’t attempted to make a case here for abstinence (another day, maybe). My aim was much smaller: to make a case against some kind of unique virtue in the alcohol in wine. (The biblical references to “strong drink”/”beer” etc. are also another study entirely)
So, just to bring some distinctions in to focus. These are all different positions:
a. We should drink wine because it has alcohol in it and the Scriptures indicate that alcohol-generated cheer is God’s gift to us.
b. Drinking wine is permissible since (nearly) everyone in ancient times did and only drunkenness is condemned… but even getting a bit happy due to the effects of alcohol is wrong.
c. Drinking wine is permissible and getting a bit happy due to the effects of alcohol is OK because it is not drunkenness, but there is no biblical call to specifically enjoy the effects of alcohol.
d. Drinking wine is not permissible because believers drank non-alcoholic wine
e. Drinking wine is not permissible because the wine of ancient times was usually more more diluted than the wine of today
f. Drinking wine is not permissible because of the dangers involved and the complete absence of any need to do so
I’m sure several other variants exist. I’m just listing these to help folks avoid lumping views together that are really not the same.
This discussion has touched on the difference between today’s wine and the wine of the ancient middle east. I think we need to go farther with that part of the discussion to understand the part that the vine, grapes, and wine played in that day. Today if we want to eat or drink we can go to the nearest “food warehouse” and buy from a seemingly unlimited assortment of food and drink. You don’t like corn flakes - buy raisin bran. You don’t want to drink Pepsi - get Coke or RC Cola. Etc. Etc. The assortment, availability and ease of getting food and drink was not something that people of that day experienced - and this is true of the third world today.
In Bible times there were very few kinds of food stuffs available to the people and their economy was based on growing olive trees, grape vines, and wheat. I have lived in two different third world countries since 1986 and I believe that the experience of seeing the rejoicing at a good rice harvest is similar to what the Bible is talking about. In my “home” country most years they go through what they call “hungry time” when then their last rice is used up and they must wait till the next harvest - which comes with great rejoicing and singing. Now, imagine living in a hot dry country waiting for the grape harvest - and the celebration at finally drinking the fresh juice from the grape after having only water or “old” wine (or wine paste) for a number of weeks or months.
In this, I am not arguing about the % of alcohol in the “wine” - I just agree with Aaron that it is not logical to assume that the ONLY reason people rejoiced over a good cup of “wine” was because of its alcohol content.
When we lived in the Ivory Coast during Liberian’s civil war, we were able to shop at grocery stores in Abidjan, but 99% of the goods were from Europe and we used to crave some good American products. When things improved in Liberia we were able to make trips into Liberia and many times we went with of list of special foods we were to buy for the missionaries we worked with in the Ivory Coast. I still remember one of the first times when we arrived in Monrovia, shopped at the grocery store, and went to the guest house to have a meal of barbecue sloppy Joes (Manwich!), Barbecue baked beans, and A&W root beer (non-alcoholic! ;-). Both my heart and my mouth rejoiced and praised God that day because of the meal - and this obviously involved no alcohol. :D
MS -------------------------------- Luke 17:10
[Shaynus]…Didn’t take long to set aside silliness did it?Hey, you’re the one that’s postulating that “sporting with” the bride and knocking back a shot of tequila are Scriptural equals. Not thinking that dog’ll hunt for anybody but you. Just sayin’…..
Lee
[dmicah] a few of God’s giftsYou have to read into scripture to say that consumption of alcoholic beverages is a gift from God. I could say that yeast is a result of God’s curse, that it didn’t exist before the fall, that crushed grapes would never have fermented into something that is toxic to the human body. I have to read into that, of course, because the Bible doesn’t tell us what, specifically happened to Creation at the fall. There are plenty of naturally occurring phenomena that are unhealthy to humanity; some were probably created, and some probably developed after the Fall.
spouse
nature
sexual relations
food
non-marital companionship
alcoholic beverages
each is to be enjoyed within context and biblical parameters.
each can be abused, mistreated, become idols, create addictions, etc. outside of context and biblical parameters. But abuse and misuse comes from humanity and our hearts, not the element of the gift.
After chewing on this a bit, I’m beginning to question whether or not consumption of alcohol really is a liberty issue. Reading through the section in I Cor 8 and following, Paul deals with the issue using an item that has no moral value - good or bad, it was just a piece of meat. It had an external cultural stigma in that it was offered to idols, but it was still just a piece of meat. The Bible never warns against eating meat (not including the OT law prohibitions, of course). Meat itself is a neutral substance. But there are many passages that warn against alcohol consumption, and those of you who condone it seem to approach it as more than just a liberty issue, but actually as a moral, virtuous thing, a blessing from God, that the rest of us are missing out on. And I think this speaks to Aaron’s original point, which was the question of whether alcohol actually has inherent virtue. If it does, then this really is not a Christian Liberty issue, but, rather, something that somehow Christians have missed for generations (centuries?) or was somehow lost and is being rediscovered as a blessing we’ve all been missing out on all this time.
Boy, it would have been so much easier if Paul’s letter to the church at Corinth dealt with alcoholic beverages rather than meat offered to idols. :)
Ashamed of Jesus! of that Friend On whom for heaven my hopes depend! It must not be! be this my shame, That I no more revere His name. -Joseph Grigg (1720-1768)
[Lee]What do you mean by Scriptural equals? I don’t think we mean the same thing. I would say knocking back a shot of tequila normal intends with it drunkenness.[Shaynus]…Didn’t take long to set aside silliness did it?Hey, you’re the one that’s postulating that “sporting with” the bride and knocking back a shot of tequila are Scriptural equals. Not thinking that dog’ll hunt for anybody but you. Just sayin’…..
Note that you have to go to the most extreme, silly rhetorical flourish (tipping me off that you’re making an argument from emotion rather than reason) just after chiding people for silliness when they’re making a formal argument. Bad form sir. Bad form.
[JNoël]Meat and wine will remain in the new heavens and new earth. They are not something that was created to be destroyed, or even bad parts of the fall.[dmicah] a few of God’s giftsYou have to read into scripture to say that consumption of alcoholic beverages is a gift from God. I could say that yeast is a result of God’s curse, that it didn’t exist before the fall, that crushed grapes would never have fermented into something that is toxic to the human body. I have to read into that, of course, because the Bible doesn’t tell us what, specifically happened to Creation at the fall. There are plenty of naturally occurring phenomena that are unhealthy to humanity; some were probably created, and some probably developed after the Fall.
spouse
nature
sexual relations
food
non-marital companionship
alcoholic beverages
each is to be enjoyed within context and biblical parameters.
each can be abused, mistreated, become idols, create addictions, etc. outside of context and biblical parameters. But abuse and misuse comes from humanity and our hearts, not the element of the gift.
After chewing on this a bit, I’m beginning to question whether or not consumption of alcohol really is a liberty issue. Reading through the section in I Cor 8 and following, Paul deals with the issue using an item that has no moral value - good or bad, it was just a piece of meat. It had an external cultural stigma in that it was offered to idols, but it was still just a piece of meat. The Bible never warns against eating meat (not including the OT law prohibitions, of course). Meat itself is a neutral substance. But there are many passages that warn against alcohol consumption, and those of you who condone it seem to approach it as more than just a liberty issue, but actually as a moral, virtuous thing, a blessing from God, that the rest of us are missing out on. And I think this speaks to Aaron’s original point, which was the question of whether alcohol actually has inherent virtue. If it does, then this really is not a Christian Liberty issue, but, rather, something that somehow Christians have missed for generations (centuries?) or was somehow lost and is being rediscovered as a blessing we’ve all been missing out on all this time.
Boy, it would have been so much easier if Paul’s letter to the church at Corinth dealt with alcoholic beverages rather than meat offered to idols. :)
On this mountain the LORD of hosts will make for all peoples(Isaiah 25:6 ESV)
a feast of rich food, a feast of well-aged wine,
of rich food full of marrow, of aged wine well refined.
[JNoël] You have to read into scripture to say that consumption of alcoholic beverages is a gift from God.come back after you’ve read psalm 104
[ChrisC]And that Psalm can be argued against with any number of other passages. I’ll leave the interpretational issue to all of you scholars out there, as it is clear that even the greatest and most well-known commentators disagree on the appropriate application of passages like Psalm 104 and Isaiah 25:6.[JNoël] You have to read into scripture to say that consumption of alcoholic beverages is a gift from God.come back after you’ve read psalm 104
This is where I sit back and listen. Thank you all for the respectful dialog.
Ashamed of Jesus! of that Friend On whom for heaven my hopes depend! It must not be! be this my shame, That I no more revere His name. -Joseph Grigg (1720-1768)
[MShep2]So… here’s a question why don’t we use the RC Cola you mentioned at communion? I would be fine with wine myself at the Lord’s Table, but for reasons involving weaker brothers and conscience we use grape juice. The reason we stick as close as possible to wine is partly that it is symbolic of blood and wrath as well as joy. Blood and wrath poured out for our salvation, which causes joy. Wine was God’s idea. He knew before the foundation of the world that the human race would misuse his creation of grapes and wine and alcohol, but still he chose in his wisdom not only to go ahead with the creation of it, but made it a central symbol for us of His salvation of us. I do think the alcohol adds to the imagery God was trying to get across. It burns a little as it goes down. Alcoholic wine has dregs, often mentioned in tandem with the passages dealing with the wrath of God and drinking down to the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lees_(fermentation)] dregs or lees as an unpleasant experience after finishing. As mentioned before, the alcohol does create a warmth or joy.
In this, I am not arguing about the % of alcohol in the “wine” - I just agree with Aaron that it is not logical to assume that the ONLY reason people rejoiced over a good cup of “wine” was because of its alcohol content.
I would take the imagery of wine as a whole as well. It’s not just about the alcohol, but the imagery works better when alcohol is present. The image is far deeper and fuller than the alcohol because it’s a dual symbol of wrath and joy: just like the death of Christ.
Discussion